Psychoanalytikerinnen. Biografisches Lexikon

Enid Balint née Albu (1903-1994)

Enid Flora Albu, psychoanalyst and welfare worker, was born in London. She was educated at Cheltenham Ladies' College before she entered the London School of Economics in 1922, and graduated in 1925. In 1926 she married Robert N. Eichholtz, a professor of philology, and became the mother of two daughters.
During and after the Second World War Enid Albu-Eichholtz organized the Citizens' Advice Bureaux in London on behalf of the Family Welfare Association (later the Institute of Family Relations), helping families who lost their homes during the bombing. In 1947/48 she participated in founding the Family Discussion Bureau, the later Tavistock Marital Studies Institute, in order to train social workers, who were needed for family counselling.
In 1948 she started her psychoanalytic training with John Rickman at the Tavistock Clinic. After Rickman died in 1951, she continued training analysis with Donald W. Winnicott. In 1952 she was accepted as an associate member of the British Psychoanalytical Society (BPAS), and after her presentation of Three phases of a transference neurosis became a full member in 1954.
In connection with her work at the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations, Enid Albu-Eichholtz met Michael Balint (1896-1970), whom she married in 1953, after divorcing Eichholtz. She introduced Balint to the casework technique, which she used in training social workers and psychologists. Between 1949 and 1954 they developed the concept of the "Balint group", a training method for practitioners. In these groups, doctors discuss (under the direction of an analyst) case reports from their practice and work through the transference and counter-transference in the doctor-patient relationship. Even after their divorce Enid and Michael Balint worked closely together and developed the focal psychotherapy and the so-called flash technique for generalists.
In 1963 Enid Balint became a training analyst of the BPAS, where she belonged to the Middle Group of independents. Until 1965 she was in charge of the training and research course for general practitioners at the Tavistock Clinic, and from 1970 till 1974 she directed the London Institute of Psychoanalysis. A volume of her papers Before I was I was edited in 1993. Her work is especially related to that of Sándor Ferenczi, Michael Balint and Donald Winnicott. Above all she was interested in unconscious communication, the understanding of pre-verbal and bodily processes and the interface between the pre-verbal and verbal. She saw the aim of analysis as the development of "imaginative perception": the patient imagines his perceptions and by that he creates his own, partly imaginated, partly perceived world. Balint stated, that the self and the world around us become real and alive only through the imagination.
After Michael Balint's death Enid Balint married (in 1976) Robert Humphrey Gordon (Robin) Edmonds (*1920), a retired diplomat and historian. (Top of the article)

• SELECTED WORKS
• Development of family discussion bureau work. Social Casework January 1951, 495-500

Mary Barkas (1889-1959/1961?)

Mary Rushton Barkas was born at Christchurch, New Zealand. She was the sheltered only child of Frederick Barkas and Amy née Porter, both from England (Fig.). Her father was a chemist and manager of the New Zealand Loan and Mercantile Agency Company, her mother worked as a governess and music teacher before her marriage.
After studying at the Victoria University College in Wellington, Mary Barkas went to London in 1913 to continue with domestic science at King's College. Shortly after the outbreak of the First World War, she decided to study medicine at St. Marys Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women and gained her medical degree in 1918. In 1919 she became the first female house physician at Bethlem, London's famous psychiatric hospital. Her work at Bethlem stimulated her interest in psychiatry. She went on to study Psychological Medicine, took her Diploma in 1922 and proceeded to the M.D. in 1923. She then practised at the Maudsley Psychiatric Hospital, where she specialized in psychotherapy.
In 1922 Mary Barkas went to Vienna where she began studying psychoanalysis under Otto Rank. That same year she became an associate member of the British Psychoanalytical Society (BPAS). She gave lectures about psychosis, such as, in 1925, about The treatment of psychotic patients in institutions in the light of psycho-analysis at the BPAS. In 1924 she attended the International Psychoanalytical Congress in Salzburg. She was less interested in psychoanalytic theory than in the application of psychoanalysis to the therapy of psychotic patients.
From 1928 to 1932 she was appointed Medical Superintendent of a small private asylum, The Lawn Hospital in Lincoln. After The Lawn nearly went bankrupt and her father died in 1932, Mary Barkas returned to New Zealand. She retired to Tapu, north of Thames, and devoted her life to the study of Chinese philosophy.

Esther Bick née Wander (1902-1983)

The child analyst Esther Bick was born Esteza Lifsza Wander in Przemysl in Galicia (then part of the Austro-Hungarian empire). She was the eldest daughter of orthodox Jewish parents. At the age of seven years, she was sent to Prague, to assist her aunt in caring for a baby. She then worked as a nursery teacher, studied successfully for her baccalaureate and went to Vienna to study Psychology under Charlotte Bühler, who at that time was researching infant development. Despite her discomfort with Bühler's behaviouristic approach, she completed her PhD dissertation Gruppenbildung im zweiten Lebensjahr in 1935 in the context of this project.
After leaving university she married the physician Phillip Bick, with whom she fled (following Germany's annexation of Austria in 1938) to Switzerland. Not being granted a work permit, she emigrated - without her husband - to England, and lived initially in Manchester, where she began an analysis with Michael Balint in 1941. She worked in a day nursery in Salford, and between 1942 and 1945 in a child guidance clinic in Leeds.
After the end of the war she moved to London, starting her training at the Institute of Psychoanalysis in 1947. She continued her training analysis with Melanie Klein in 1950 and became a disciple of Klein. In 1948 she was accepted as an associate member, and in 1953, after the presentation of her paper Anxieties underlying phobia of sexual intercourse in a woman, as a full member of the BPAS. She specialized in child analysis and accepted in 1949 the invitation of John Bowlby, to work as a child psychotherapist at the Tavistock Clinic, where she organized her Infant Observation seminars and introduced this method into the core of the child psychotherapist's training.
Esther Bick exerted a profound influence on the development of child psychotherapy in England. Starting from Bühler's approach, she integrated the Infant Observation method into the psychoanalytic setting and conceived the technique of Therapeutic Infant Observation, which is connected with her name. Bick's method of observing the infant in its family environment, from birth to age two, was a conceptual innovation, for her focus lied on the emotions of the observer as a means for getting into connection with the child's unconscious.
Situated within the Kleinian theory, Bick's most important concepts include the term of the "mental skin", the primal skin function, and the defensive second skin phenomena. Esther Bick stated, that the baby's own skin, felt both from within itself and through its boundary with its mother's skin (skin of self-and-mother), is experienced as being able to hold together its personality in an early state of development. If this primary skin containment fails, a second skin is built by muscular self-containment as defense against the catastrophic experience of a leak containment and the threatening life-spilling-out. This opened the way to Didier Anzieu's idea of the skin ego. (Top of the article)

Marjorie Brierley (1893-1984)

Marjorie Flowers Brierley studied psychology at the London University College from 1916 to 1921 and became medically qualified in 1928. In 1922 she married William R. Brierley (1889-1963), botany professor at Reading University and formerly the husband of her friend Susan Isaacs. She had personal analysis with John Carl Flügel and subsequently with Edward Glover. She qualified as an associate member of the British Psychoanalytical Society in 1927 and as a member in 1930.
Commencing in 1933, Marjorie Brierley was a training and control analyst of the BPAS and a lecturer at the Psychoanalytic Institute in London. During the controversies between Melanie Klein and Anna Freud she took an intermediate position and belonged later to the so-called Middle Group of the independents. As a member of committee with Edward Glover and James Strachey she organized the Controversal Discussions, which were held in 1943 and 1944 to attempt to evaluate the different theoretical positions of Kleinians and Anna Freudians.
Although Marjorie Brierley reproached Melanie Klein for her general lack of precise definition, especially of the term "internal object", on many issues she agreed with her and regarded the Kleinian concept of internalised object phantasies as compatible with Sigmund Freud's fundamental ideas. Brierley's book Trends in Psycho-Analysis (1951) contains all the articles, she wrote between 1934 and 1947 - with the exception of two papers on the subject of female development. The most notable is her essay Affects in theory and practise, which aimed to restore affects to their appropriate place in psychoanalytic theory, distinguishing them as essentially ego experiences from instinct.
Marjorie Brierley published numerous articles and book reviews in the International Journal of Psychoanalysis, for which she was assistant editor until 1978. After her training analyst Edward Glover left the BPAS in 1944, she reduced her activities concerning the psychoanalytic society. When her husband retired in 1954, she also withdrew from clinical practice. (Top of the article)

Mary Chadwick

Mary Chadwick was an early pioneer of child analysis in Great Britain. She qualified as a nurse and subsequently received her psychoanalytic training at the Brunswick Square Clinic in London and with Hanns Sachs at the Psychoanalytic Institute in Berlin. Her name is mentioned on the same level as Ella Sharpe and Nina Searl, all of them pupils of Hanns Sachs who represented a similar psychoanalytic view. Mary Chadwick conducted her first child analysis in 1922, employing the principles of Sigmund Freud and Hermine Hug-Hellmuth.
Mary Chadwick became an associate member of the British Psychoanalytical Society (BPAS) in 1923. She belonged to the BPAS until the mid 1940s. Full membership was refused to her by the veto of a minority, although the majority in the BPAS including Ernest Jones supported her application. Her collegue Melitta Schmideberg claimed, that Mary Chadwick had been, like Nina Searl, pushed out of the Society by the "Kleinian clique" - in spite of Melanie Klein's approval of her book Women's Periodicity. Menstruation, a subject to which little attention had been paid in psychoanalytic theory before, was one of the main themes in the writings of Mary Chadwick.
Mary Chadwick was a lecturer at the British College of Nurses and published numerous works about the psychology of children and education. One of her analysands was the American poet Hilda Doolittle, who underwent three months of analysis with her in 1931.

• SELECTED WORKS
• Psychology for Nurses. Introductory Lectures for Nurses upon Psychology and Psycho-Analysis. Given at 6 Guilford Place, London, during 1924-25. London 1925
• Über die Wurzel der Wißbegierde. IZP 11, 1925, 54-68
• A case of kleptomania in a girl of ten years. IJP 6, 1925, 300-312

Rose Edgcumbe (1934-2001)

The child analyst Rose Marjorie Edgcumbe was born in London, where she studied psychology at the University College. In the mid 1950s she went to the United States, where she continued studying psychology and worked as a clinical psychologist in a children's hospital. After two years she returned to England and was active at the Booth Hall Children's Hospital in Manchester. In 1959 she began her training as a child analyst with Anna Freud at the Hampstead Child Therapy Course and Clinic in London and she qualified in 1963.
Rose Edgcumbe became a member of the British Psychoanalytical Society and worked as a training and supervising analyst at the Hampstead Clinic (after 1984, The Anna Freud Centre), where she served as a director in 1992/93. She published a succession of ground-breaking papers on the theory and practice of child analysis, e. g., on the young girl's sexual development, psychological aspects of the acquisition of language and on symbolization. She focused her interest on the description and explanation of the Anna Freudian approach, in this context she wrote her most notable book Anna Freud. A View of Development, Disturbance and Therapeutic Techniques.
In 1990 Rose Edgcumbe married Peter Theobald. She died of cancer at the age of 67.

• SELECTED WORKS
• Some comments on the concept of the negative oedipal phase in girls. Psa Study Child 31, 1976, 35-61

Liselotte Frankl (1910-1988)

Liselotte (Lilly) Frankl was born in Vienna, the eldest daughter of the businessman Robert Frankl and his wife Julie Baum. After attending the reformed grammar school for girls, she began studying psychology in 1929 at the University of Vienna, where she became a research assistant to Charlotte Bühler. At the same time she attended the lectures of Anna Freud and had a personal analysis with Ernst Kris.
In 1935 she gained her PhD at the Vienna University and worked subsequently as an education advisor at the Wiener Jugendamt and Karolinen-Kinderspital. In 1938, the year of the "Anschluss", she emigrated from Austria to Scotland where she was appointed to the staff of the Crichton Royal Hospital in Dumfries. She undertook medical training at the London School of Medicine for Women and the University of Saint Andrews in Scotland. After obtaining an MB BS from the University of London in 1945, she worked as a psychiatrist at the East London Child Guidance Clinic.
Liselotte Frankl continued her psychoanalytic training in London and joined the British Psychoanalytical Society, where she became a training analyst and supervisor a few years later. She worked with Anna Freud and was appointed Medical Director of the Hampstead Child Therapy Clinic - a post in which she served for many years. At Hampstead (with Ilse Hellmann) she directed a research project on adolescence. Her psychoanalytic writings include works on the problems of adolescence, accident proneness, the development of Albanian infants and the Ego's participation in the therapeutic alliance.
In 1967 Liselotte Frankl went on leave because of a depressive period and underwent psychiatric treatment. After her recovery she did not return to her former position and died at the age of 78 in London.

Marjorie Franklin (1877-1975)

The English psychoanalyst Marjorie Ellen Franklin was born into a well-to-do family prominent in banking and liberal Jewish circles. She had been intended for the educational profession and was sent to the House of Education in Ambleside to be trained by Charlotte Mason, but soon she decided to study medicine. After basic medical training, Marjorie Franklin went to New York, to specialize in psychiatry under Adolf Meyer, a co-founder of the NYPS and the APsaA. Subsequently she studied psychoanalysis with Sándor Ferenczi in Budapest.
Marjorie Franklin was an early member of the British Psycho-Analytical Society (founded in 1919). Her main interest was the application of psychoanalysis to the under-privileged which she undertook through honorary appointments at hospitals. She worked in London as a consultant psychiatrist at the British Hospital for Functional Nervous Disorders, the Howard League for Penal Reform, and the Institute for the Scientific Treatment of Delinquency (later the Portman Clinic), of which she was a co-founder together with Edward Glover, Grace Pailthorpe and Melitta Schmideberg.
While working as a junior medical officer at the Portsmouth Borough Mental Hospital in the early 1920s, Marjorie Franklin became interested in the relationship between mental illness and the patient's environment. She developed a therapeutic concept, which she called "Planned Environmental Therapy" (PET), and tried it out at the so-called Q Camps. According to this milieu-therapy, theoretically inspired by positions of Donald W. Winnicott, Anna Freud, Otto Shaw and I. D. Suttie, patients live in a therapeutic community and are treated by a psychoanalytically supervised staff team. The therapy is based on establishing non-authoritarian, loving and accepting relationships.

Kate Friedländer née Frankl (1902-1949)

Kate Friedländer, psychoanalyst and physician, was born in Innsbruck, she was the daughter of middle-class Hungarian Jewish parents. The families of her father, the businessman Karl Frankl, and her mother Adele Frankl came both from Preßburg. Käte Frankl was educated by the Ursuline catholic nuns and was a member of a Zionist youth group (as were also her two brothers and her sister). In 1921 she commenced her medical education in Innsbruck and Berlin and obtained her degree in 1926. Subsequently she became an assistant to Karl Bonhoeffer at the Charité psychiatric university clinic in Berlin. Simultaneously she began her psychoanalytic training at the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute, her training analyst was presumably Hanns Sachs.
In 1929 she married Walter Misch (1889-1943), then a senior physician at the Charité and, like her, of Jewish origin. Their daughter Sybille was born two years later. In 1932 together they wrote an essay on Die vegetative Genese der neurotischen Angst und ihre medikamentöse Beseitigung, which was highly regarded by Wilhelm Reich. Käte Misch-Frankl became an associate member of the Deutsche Psychoanalytische Vereinigung in 1933, where she belonged to a group of left orientated analysts around Otto Fenichel.
Käte and Walter Misch emigrated to London after the Reichstagsbrand in 1933. Käte Misch took her third medical degree in Edinburgh and obtained a Diploma in Psychological Medicine in London. She became an associate member of the British Psychoanalytical Society (BPAS) in 1933 and a full member in 1938. In 1934 she separated from her first husband and three years later married Georg Friedländer, a Jewish radiologist from Wroclaw.
Kate Friedländer was no supporter of Melanie Klein's thinking, which predominated in the BPAS at that time. She shared the views of Anna Freud, with whom she worked together during the following years. After the war it was Kate Friedländer who persuaded Anna Freud to establish the Hampstead Child Therapy Course, where she was active as a teacher and training analyst.
Focussing her main interest on the problem of juvenile delinquency, Kate Friedländer was the first to develop a systematic psychoanalytic theory of the causes of delinquency. Working at the Institute for the Scientific Treatment of Delinquency under the leadership of Edward Glover, she referred to August Aichhorn's Viennese work with problem adolescents and counselled maladjusted children and delinquent juveniles.
She set up Britain's first Child Guidance Clinic focusing on psychoanalysis as research method in West Sussex. However, she did not find it useful to conduct personal analysis with juvenile delinquents, but combined psycho- and socio-therapeutic measures. She preferred prevention, rather than cure, by educating parents, teachers and social workers.
In her main work The Psychoanalytic Approach to Juvenile Delinquency she described the origins of the delinquent behaviour as follows: A latent neglect structure - strong unmodified drives, a weak ego, which is dominated by pleasure principle, and an non-independent super-ego - becomes manifest under the influence of negative environmental conditions. Unlike the neurotic, who gets substitutive satisfaction by the use of the imagination, the drive impulse of the antisocial character leads to a criminal act. (Top of the article)

Iseult Grant Duff (1882-1957)

Iseult Frederica Grant Duff was a member of a well-known British family. Her father, Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant Duff was the British Governor of Madras from 1881 to 1886, where Iseult, the youngest of eight children, was born. Her mother Lady Grant Duff (née Webster) was a famed beauty, a painter and poetess. After the return of her family to England Iseult Grant Duff grew up under the care of a German governess in the York House mansion at Twickenham.
As a young woman Iseult Grant Duff went to India as a missionary for several years. Having lost her religious faith, she came back to England after the First World War. While studying at the Brunswick Square Clinic in London, she met the analysts James Glover and Ella Sharpe. She had her training analysis first with Edward Glover, and later with Hanns Sachs in Berlin and finished her training with Ernest Jones in London. In 1923 she became an associate member and in 1933 a full member of the British Psychoanalytical Society, where she was amongst the followers of Anna Freud.
Iseult Grant Duff was particularly interested in the application of psychoanalysis to literature and poetry. She translated Sigmund Freud's essay Der Dichter und das Phantasieren into English and wrote articles about themes like the pregenital fixations of Jonathan Swift and the bisexuality of St. Thérèse of Lisieux.
Iseult Grant Duff retired from active psychoanalytical practice at the end of the Second World War. At the age of seventy-five, she and her female companion, who was bedridden with arthritis, committed suicide.

Nicena Battiscombe Gunn née Meacham (1886-?)

Lillian Florence "Meena" Battiscombe Gunn was born into a protestant family in Maidstone, Kent. She was one of three daughters, her younger sister Gwendoline Emily Meacham, better known as Wendy Wood, was a famous campaigner for Scottish independence. Her father Charles Stephen Meacham was a chemist, her mother Florence Wood came from an old Scottish family. In 1894 the family moved to South Africa, where Charles Meacham took up a leading position in a brewery.
In her late teens, Meena Meacham returned to London to study piano at the Royal Academy of Music. She became part of the circle around George Bernard Shaw and H. G. Wells and was a member of the Fabian Society. In 1907 she married the Irish musician Herbert Hughes (1882-1937), their son Patrick - later known as Spike Hughes - was born in 1908. After her divorce from Hughes in 1922, she married the Egyptologist Battiscombe George Gunn (1883-1950), who was a Curator and Professor in Cairo, Philadelphia and Oxford. In 1928 their son John Battiscombe Gunn was born, who later became a physicist. (Fig.) They divorced in the beginning of the 1940s.
Nicena Battiscombe Gunn studied in Vienna and began her psychoanalytic training as a staff member of the Wiener Psychoanalytisches Ambulatorium in 1924. That same year she went to Budapest, presumably to continue her psychoanalytic training with Sándor Ferenczi. She attended the International Psychoanalytical Congress in Salzburg (1924) and in Bad Homburg (1925), but she did not join the British Psychoanalytical Society. She maintained a psychoanalytical practice on Harley Street in London, and after World War II she worked with Anna Freud. In the 1960s she went to the United States.

Victoria Hamilton (*1941)

Victoria Edith Hamilton, born in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, was the youngest daughter of Robert Edward Archibald Udney-Hamilton, 11th Lord Belhaven and Stenton, and his wife Sheila de Hauteville Pearson. She studied at the Glasgow School of Art and became an author and illustrator of children's books. Later she went to London, where she studied philosophy at the University College and worked part time as an art-therapist in a mental hospital. In 1966 she met the anti-psychiatrist Ronald D. Laing and underwent analysis with him. In the beginning of the 1970s she received her training as a child psychotherapist with John Bowlby at the Tavistock Clinic. Victoria Hamilton worked for the National Health Service and various Child Guidance Services and taught at a number of schools and colleges.
In 1976 she married Nicholas Tufnell and moved with him to Los Angeles, where she opened a psychotherapeutic practice. Their son Samuel was born two years later. In 1991 Victoria Hamilton graduated in psychoanalysis from the University College London having accomplished an empirical study on Patterns of transference interpretation. Today she is supervisor and child analyst at the Columbia University Center for Psychoanalytic Training and Research.
Victoria Hamilton orients herself in the use of the concepts from attachment theory and object-relations theory. In her book Narcissus and Oedipus she takes up Greek myths again, which Sigmund Freud had used to illustrate his theory of the psychological development, completing them with later psychoanalytic research and relating them to her own experience with children.

Martha Harris née Dunlop (1919-1987)

Martha Gemmell Dunlop Harris was born at her parent's farm in Beith, Ayrshire (Scotland), the eldest of four children. Her father Gabriel Dunlop was a farmer, her mother Margaret McLure ran her own thriving tailoring company before marrying. When Martha (Mattie) was eight, the family moved to Turner`s Hill in Sussex, where she went to the County Grammar School at East Grinstead. From 1939 to 1940 she studied English at the London University College. During and after the war she worked as a teacher in secondary schools.
In 1941 she married Harry Thompson, an ecologist working for the Forestry Commission, from whom she was divorced in 1949. Her second husband was the poet and English scholar Roland Harris (1919-1969), with whom she had two daughters, Meg (Harris Williams) and Morag.
Martha Harris read Psychology at Oxford before training as a child psychotherapist with John Bowlby and Esther Bick at the Tavistock Clinic, followed by training as a psychoanalyst of adults and children at the British Psychoanalytical Society. She practiced privately as a psychoanalyst and was Principal of the Dept. of Children and Parents at the Tavistock Clinic from the 1960's until her retirement. Like Esther Bick, she was an adherent of Melanie Klein's ideas and a pioneer of the method of infant observation. Another important teacher of her's was Wilfred Ruprecht Bion.
After Roland Harris died in 1969, Martha Harris married the Kleinian psychoanalyst Donald Meltzer (1922-2004). Together they developed the psychoanalytically-oriented work unit "The Child-in-the-Family-in-the-Community" for schools and therapeutic institutions.

Paula Heimann née Glatzko (1899-1982)

Paula Heimann was born in Danzig as the daughter of Russian Jewish parents. She attended the high school for girls and studied medicine from 1918 in Königsberg, Berlin and Frankfurt am Main, and passed the "Staatsexamen" in 1925 at Breslau. After attaining her MD in 1926 in Heidelberg, she practiced at the University Psychiatric Clinic in Heidelberg, and the Charité in Berlin. In 1924, she married the internist Franz Heimann; a year later their daughter Mirza was born. They divorced in 1933.
From 1928 to 1932 Paula Heimann received her psychoanalytic training at the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute. Her training analyst was Theodor Reik, supervising analysts were Karen Horney and Hanns Sachs. When Hitler came to power in 1933, Heimann emigrated with her daughter to London. That year she became an associate member and in 1939 (after reading her lecture A contribution to the problem of sublimation and its relation to processes of internalization) a full member of the British Psychoanalytical Society (BPAS). In 1938, she received her British medical qualification from the University of Edinburgh.
In 1934 Paula Heimann met Melanie Klein, whose emphasis on the aggression and the death instincts appealed to her. A year later she went into further analysis with Klein, continuing it (with interruptions) until 1953. She became a close collaborator of Melanie Klein and - besides Joan Riviere and Susan Isaacs - the most vehement advocate of Kleinian positions during the 1930s and 1940s controversies with Anna Freud and her followers. In 1944 she became a training analyst and was elected a member of the Training Committee of the BPAS in 1949.
After the war, a break occurred between Melanie Klein and Paula Heimann, to which Heimann's paper On countertransference, read at the 1949 IPA Congress in Zürich, provided the ostensible cause. In this study, considered to be one of the most important influences on modern psychoanalytic technique, Paula Heimann presented a concept of the counter-transference that differed from the Kleinian view. To Melanie Klein the counter-transference signified merely a disturbance of the analytic process, however, Paula Heimann showed that the analyst's affective response to his patient could be a key to the unconscious of the latter.
In 1955 Heiman left the Kleinian Group and joined the Independent Group of the BPAS. In the following years she pleaded for a synthesis of the Anna Freudian and Kleinian positions. Training analysands of hers were, among others, Betty Joseph, Martha Eicke-Spengler, Emilio Rodrigu, and Alexander Mitscherlich, whose Psychoanalytic Institute in Frankfurt she supported.
Paula Heimann, who was known for her charm as well as for her strictness and strength of will, died at the age of 83 in London. (Top of the article)

Ilse Hellmann (1908-1998)

Ilse Hellman(n) grew up as the youngest of three children in a wealthy Jewish family in Vienna. Her parents, Paul Hellmann, an owner of textile mills, and Irene Hellmann-Redlich, maintained a cultural salon in Vienna during the 1920s. Among their intimate friends were writers and artists such as Hugo von Hofmannsthal, Richard Strauss and Gustav Mahler. After completing a two-year course specialising in juvenile delinquency, Ilse Hellmann went to France and worked from 1931 in a home for young offenders near Paris. At the same time, she attended evening classes in psychology at the Sorbonne. From 1933 to 1935 she worked with children from multi-problem families in a child assessment center in Paris.
On returning to Vienna in 1935, Hellmann studied psychology under Charlotte Bühler. After graduating in 1937, she followed Bühler's invitation, to join her in a study of retarded children at the Parents' Association Institute in London. During the Second World War Ilse Hellmann worked with children evacuated from London to escape the air raids. From 1942 till the end of the war, she joined Anna Freud to work at the Hampstead War Nurseries. The further development of these "war babies", separated from their parents and living in the therapeutic community of Hampstead, continued to be an object of her research during the following decades.
In 1942 Ilse Hellman began her psychoanalytic training at the London Institute of Psychoanalysis, her training analyst was Dorothy Burlingham. She became an associate member in 1945 and a full member in 1952 of the British Psychoanalytical Society. From 1955 onwards she was training analyst and one of the leading figures in the Anna Freudian Group. After joining the staff at Anna Freud and Dorothy Burlingham's Hampstead Child Therapy Course and Clinic, she conducted simultaneous analysis of mother and child. For some years she was in charge of the department for adolescents at Hampstead and directed, together with Liselotte Frankl, a research project on adolescence.
After the war Ilse Herman married the Dutch art historian, Arnold Noach (?-1976), who had survived the Nazi occupation of Holland. Their daughter Margaret was born in 1949. Increasing ill health forced Ilse Noach to abandon the practice at the age of 84.

Ethilda Budgett-Meakin Herford (1872-1956)

Ethilda Budgett-Meakin was the daughter of Edward E. Meakin, for some years editor of the Times of Morocco, and his wife Sarah Anne Budgett. She grew up in London, where she was educated at the North London Collegiate School and University College. As a preparation for her medical studies, she worked for two years with a mission in the Glasgow slums. She qualified as a doctor at the Royal Free Hospital in London in 1898 (MB) and 1899 (BS). Subsequently she held appointments as assistant medical officer at the Camberwell Infirmary and the Grove Hospital until 1902, when she went to India to do mission work. After practicing in Bombay, she was medical superintendent of the Victoria Hospital for Women in Calcutta from 1904 to 1907 and published a number of papers on gynaecological topics.
In 1907 Ethilda Budgett-Meakin married Oscar Herford, a businessman based in Calcutta and a gifted violinist with a German-Jewish background. Ten years later they returned to England with their four children and settled in Reading. Ethilda Herford trained at the Brunswick Square Clinic in London and worked there as an analyst. After the British Psychoanalytical Society (BPAS) had refused her nomination as a member of the Society, Ethilda Herford, like other "wild" (Ernest Jones) analysts from Brunswick, went to Berlin in 1920. She began analysis with Karl Abraham and continued it with Sándor Ferenczi at Budapest.
Back in England, she became an associate member of the BPAS in 1921 and a full member in 1934. She specialised in the treatment of functional nervous disorders by psychotherapy and psychoanalysis in particular, and became a director of the British Hospital for Functional Nervous Disorders in Camden Town.

Susan Isaacs née Fairhurst (1885-1948)

Susan Sutherland Isaacs was one of the most important representatives of the psychoanalytic theory of education in England. She was born in Bromley Cross near Bolton, Lancashire, as the ninth child of William Fairhurst, journalist and Methodist lay-preacher. Her mother, Miriam Sutherland, died when Susan was six years old. At the age of fifteen, her father removed her from her Bolton secondary school, because she had become an agnostic. She worked as a private tutor and governess, before training as a teacher of young children at Manchester and subsequently studying philosophy in Manchester and psychology at Newnham College, Cambridge. After gaining a master's degree in 1913, she lectured in infant school education at Darlington Training College in 1913/14 and in logic at Manchester University in 1914/15.
In 1914 she married the botany professor William B. Brierley (1889-1963) and moved with him to London, where she was appointed tutor in psychology at London University in 1916. At that time she still supported a biological approach, as can be seen in her book An Introduction to Psychology. After attending courses on psychoanalysis at the Brunswick Square Clinic in London, Susan Isaacs went to Berlin to undergo analysis with Otto Rank, which she continued with John Carl Flügel and then from 1922 with the Kleinian analyst Joan Riviere in London. In 1921 she became an associate member and in 1923 a full member of the British Psychoanalytical Society. She divorced Brierley - who later became the husband of her friend Marjorie - and married Nathan Isaacs (1895-1966), a metallurgist and educationalist, in 1922.
From 1924 to 1927 Susan Isaacs directed the famous Malting House School in Cambridge, an educational research project inspired by Melanie Klein's ideas, where children aged 2½-7 were given great freedom to develop their fantasies. The results of her research, reported in Intellectual Growth in Young Children and Social Development of Young Children, even influenced Jean Piaget. The fact that the children were encouraged to express their sexual curiosity, led in 1927 to the closure of the institution. Afterwards Susan Isaacs taught developmental psychology at the London University College. From 1933 to 1943 she directed the Department of Child Development, founded by her at the London University.
Between 1929 and 1936, under the pseudonym of "Ursula Wise", Isaacs replied to parents' questions in Nursery World. She stated that the intellectual development of the child was intimately connected with emotional development. Starting with the opinion that an education free of repression will prevent learning inhibitions and developmental disturbances, she soon turned to Melanie Klein's view of a particularly harsh super-ego active within the earliest years of life. Too much tolerance can moderate its strength, but also set free the feelings of guilt and aggression linked with it.
As the most sharp-witted spokeswoman for Melanie Klein in the dispute with the Anna Freudians, Susan Isaacs opened the Controversial Discussions in 1943 with her paper The nature and function of phantasy, one of the most important essays of the Kleinian writing. In this paper she defined phantasy - differentiating unconscious "phantasy" from daydreaming "fantasy" - as the psychical representative of the drives. According to her, unconscious phantasies constitute the primary content of psychical life and the basis of all unconscious and conscious mental processes. (Top of the article)

Betty Joseph (1917-2013)

The Kleinian analyst Betty Joseph grew up in the Midlands near Birmingham. She completed her social work training at Birmingham University and the London School of Economics. In her first employment she helped in the starting up of a child guidance clinic in Salford (near Manchester), where she began an analysis with Michael Balint in 1940. After the war she finished her psychoanalytic training in London and became a member of the British Psychoanalytical Society in 1949. In the mid-1950s she was appointed a training analyst of the BPAS. She became a collaborator of Melanie Klein and went into further analysis with Paula Heimann from 1951 to 1954.
Betty Joseph demonstrated and drew out the technical implications of Kleinian concepts, particularly those of projective and introjective identification. She was interested in the way some patients tried to maintain their (often painful) psychic equilibrium, although they had a conscious wish for psychic change. Based on Melanie Klein's concept of the "total transference situation", Betty Joseph developed her own distinctive technique. She paid close attention to the interaction between patient and analyst in the immediate here and now of the analytic process and highlighted the analyst's counter-transference, i. e. his tendency to take part in enactments of the patient's internal object relationships.
Many of Betty Joseph's most important papers are collected in Psychic Equilibrium and Psychic Change, published in 1989.

• SELECTED WORKS
• An aspect of the repetition compulsion. IJP 40, 1959, 213-222
• Some characteristics of the psychopathic personality. IJP 41, 1960, 526-531 + in J. R. Meloy (ed.): The Mark of Cain. Psychoanalytic Insight and the Psychopath. Hillsdale, N.J. ; London 2001

Pearl King (*1918)

Born in East Croydon, Surrey, Pearl King spent her childhood with her missionary parents in Tanganyika (East Africa), before returning to England for her schooling. From 1937 to 1941 she studied psychology at Bedford College, University of London, with sociology as a subsidiary subject, and subsequently qualified as a social and industrial psychologist.
She received her psychoanalytic training from 1946 to 1950 at the Institute of Psycho-Analysis in London. Her training analyst was the Kleinian John Rickman, who left the Kleinian group while she was in analysis with him. During her training she did research in social and industrial psychology at the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations. After Rickman's death in 1951 she went into further analysis with Marion Milner.
In 1951 she became an associate member and in 1954 a full member of the British Psychoanalytical Society, where she joined the Middle Group of the independents. In 1955 she was appointed as a training analyst. Pearl King held numerous offices within the BPAS and was the first non-medical president of the society between 1982 and 1984. Also she played a significant role internationally in the organisational life of psychoanalysis, amongst others as Honorary Secretary of the IPA from 1957 to 1961 and of the EPF from 1953 to 1967.
Besides her interest in the psychoanalysis of the elderly, a main focus of Pearl King's work lay on the history of psychoanalysis. From 1984 to 1994 she was Honorary Archivist of the BPAS and initiated a computerised search program concerning the history of psychoanalysis in Britain. She published a book (in collaboration with Riccardo Steiner) on the famous controversy between Melanie Klein and Anna Freud during the 1940s.
In 1992, along with Hanna Segal, she was awarded the Sigourney Prize for outstanding contributions to psychoanalysis.

• WORKS
• Change. The psychoanalysis of a four-year-old boy and its follow-up (1951). In Time Present and Time Past, 2005, 15-40
• The therapist-patient relationship. J Anal Psychol 18, 1973, 1-8

Melanie Klein née Reizes (1882-1960)

Melanie Klein played a significant role in the history of psychoanalysis, as the founder of her own school focussing on pre-oedipal development and the early object relations. She was born as the youngest of four children into a Jewish family in Vienna. Her father, Moriz Reizes, was a general practitioner from Galicia. Melanie Reizes had an ambivalent relationship to her dominant mother, Libussa née Deutsch, but she was very close to her only brother Emanuel, who died at an early age in 1902.
Contrary to her first wish for a medical training, she enrolled to study history and art at the University of Vienna. However, when she was 21 she married Arthur Klein, a chemical engineer. She moved with him to Rosenheim, where their children Melitta (1904) and Hans (1907) came into the world. Their youngest son, Ernst (1914), was born in Budapest, where the family settled in 1909.
Chronically depressive, Melanie Klein went c. 1914 into analysis with Sándor Ferenczi, who encouraged her to dedicate herself to child analysis, which was still in its infancy at that time. Her first probands were her own children. After presenting her paper Der Familienroman in statu nascendi - which based on the psychoanalytic observation of her son Erich - she became a member of the Hungarian Psychoanalytical Society in 1919.
After separating from her husband, Melanie Klein went to Berlin in 1921. Three years later she began a training analysis with Karl Abraham. In 1923 she was accepted as a member of the Berliner Psychoanalytischen Vereinigung and established a psychoanalytic practice in Berlin. At that period she developed her technique of play analysis, substituting free verbal association with the actions of children at play.
After Karl Abraham's death, her situation in Berlin became untenable because of hostility in particular from Franz Alexander and Sándor Radó. Through Alix Strachey she received an invitation from Ernest Jones to come to London, where she settled in 1926. In 1927 she was accepted as a member of the British Psychoanalytical Society. In contrast to Vienna and Berlin her work was greatly appreciated in England. Joan Riviere, Susan Isaacs and John Rickman belonged to her followers, as later on also did Paula Heimann, Hanna Segal, Herbert Rosenfeld, Donald W. Winnicott and Wilfred Ruprecht Bion. However, there was also an anti-Kleinian opposition in the BPAS, initially consisting of Edward Glover and Melanie Klein's daughter Melitta Schmideberg and then strengthened by the "Viennese group" of Anna Freud, who fled to London from Nazi persecution in 1938.
The opposition between Melanie Klein and Anna Freud dated from 1927, when Melanie Klein, at the London Symposium on Child Analysis, attacked Anna Freud, who had criticised Klein's views in her book Einführung in die Technik der Kinderanalyse. They disagreed especially on the origin of the super-ego, which superseded, according to Sigmund and Anna Freud, the Oedipus complex. The archaic and harsh Kleinian super-ego, however, occurred out of early experiences of loss and had its origin in the infant's sadistic impulses, not in the identification with the parents. Melanie Klein described an inner world of early childhood largely independent of the outer world and populated by phantasmatic "good" and "bad" (partial) objects, originating from instinctual conflicts. Referring to Sigmund Freud's theory of the death instinct, Melanie Klein stated, that these internal objects, finally, were manifestations of an innate conflicting drive structure. For Klein, the motor of the psychic development was fear as a response to destructive impulses, which were derivatives of the death instinct.
Melanie Klein demonstrated the basic ideas of her theory in her main work The Psycho-Analysis of Children, published in 1932. In her essays A contribution to the psychogenesis of manic-depressive states (1935), Mourning and its relation to manic-depressive states (1940) and Notes on some schizoid mechanism (1946), she completed her theory with the important concepts of the paranoid-schizoid and the depressive position, which took into account the conflict of simultaneous feelings of love and hate. The characteristics of these positions were mechanisms of splitting, projective identification and reparation.
The decisive debate between Kleinians and Anna Freudians, the so-called Controversial Discussions, took place in the midst of World War II and led to the official establishment of three groups within the BPAS: the Kleinians (A-Group), Freudians (B-Group) and the Middle Group, later called the Independent Group.
After the end of the war, Melanie Klein withdrew from the BPAS and concentrated on her activity as a training and supervising analyst. In 1955 she initiated the foundation of the Melanie Klein Trust. In her last major contribution Envy and Gratitude (1957), she described envy as an innate destructive drive, which was particularly important for the child's development. (Top of the article)

Barbara Lantos née Ripper (1894-1962)

Barbara Lantos, born Borbála Ripper in Budapest, studied medicine at the University of Budapest and graduated as a doctor in 1918. She frequented radical student circles such as the left wing intellectual Galilei Circle, with which Therese Benedek, Edith Gyömröi and Lili Hajdu were also associated. Her first husband was the communist medical student Albert Lantos (1892-1943), who fled to the USSR after the collapse of the Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919.
Barbara Lantos started an analysis with Sándor Ferenczi in Budapest, before she emigrated via Vienna to Leipzig. There she underwent a training analysis with Therese Benedek and continued it with Hanns Sachs in Berlin. In 1929 she became a member of the Deutsche Psychoanalytische Vereinigung, where she joined the circle of Marxist analysts around Otto Fenichel and Wilhelm Reich.
In 1933, after Hitler came to power, Barbara Lantos emigrated first to Paris, where her son was born in 1934. In 1935 she followed her friend Käthe Misch to London and became a member of the British Psychoanalytical Society. They both rejected the ideas of Melanie Klein and in the Freud-Klein Controversies they supported Anna Freud, who had come to London in 1938. Barbara Lantos was appointed as a training analyst and lecturer at the Hampstead Child Therapy Course, founded by Anna Freud after the end of the war. From 1953 onwards, Lantos represented the Anna Freudian Group in the training committee of the BPAS. As the scientific secretary of the BPAS, she later took a more independent position.
Based on the theory of ego-psychology, Barbara Lantos wrote essays about the nature of work, which were still influencing later discussions. Herbert Marcuse judged her paper Work and the instincts (1943) as the most far-reaching attempt at that time to answer the question of the drive structure of work. Lantos saw work as a highly integrated ego activity serving self-preservation instincts, in contrast to play, which is gratifying in itself and determined by pregenital impulses.
Later married to the Hungarian dentist Sándor Rakos, Barbara Lantos died from cancer at the age of 66. (Top of the article)

Hilde Lewinsky (1907-1956)

Hilde Lewinsky belonged to a group of psychoanalysts, who tried to establish a branch of the British Psychoanalytical Society (BPAS) in Manchester during World War II. While studying psychology at the University of Manchester, she was undergoing analytic training at the Manchester Training Centre, founded by Michael Balint and Alfred Gross in 1940. She became a member and training analyst of the BPAS. She ran an analytical practice and also worked in child guidance clinics.
In 1952 Hilde Lewinsky left Manchester and moved to the United States. Suffering from chronic post-scarlatinal arthritis, she died at the early age of 48.

• WORKS
• The nature of shyness. British Journal of Psychology 32, 1941, 105-113

Margaret I. Little (1901-1994)

Margaret Isabel Little was born in Bedford as one of five children. Her father was a maths teacher, her mother had grown up in Australia. She studied medicine and completed her training at St. Mary's Hospital in 1927. From 1928 to 1939 she worked as a general practitioner in Edgware, West London. From 1936 to 1939 she was a clinical assistant at the London Tavistock Clinic, where she trained as a psychotherapist and subsequently started a private psychotherapy practice.
From 1936 to 1938 Margaret Little underwent her first analysis with a Jungian analyst ("Dr. X"). From 1940 to 1947 she went into analysis with Ella Sharpe, who became her training analyst, and trained at the London Psychoanalytic Institute. After the presentation of her paper The wanderer. Some notes on a paranoid patient in 1945, she was accepted as a member of the British Psychoanalytical Society.
Suffering from psychotic anxieties, she began in 1949 a further analysis with Donald W. Winnicott. She gave an account of this analysis, which lasted with interruptions until 1957, in her book Psychotic Anxieties and Containment. Margaret Little became a training analyst of the BPAS, where she joined, like Winnicott, the Independent Group.
Margeret Little is particularly known for her contributions on counter-transference. In her article Countertransference and the patient's response to it (1951) she went beyond Paula Heimann's view of counter-transference as a signal for the analyst and stated, that counter-transference is of the same importance as transference: Patients often noticed unconsciously the analyst's counter-transference and if the analyst took no account of his counter-transference then they also would not believe in transference.
In 1980 Margaret Little withdrew from professional life. Besides her work as a psychoanalyst she was a painter and poet. An anthology of her essays and poems was published in 1981 under the title Transference Neurosis and Transference Psychosis. Toward Basic Unity.

Barbara Low (1877-1955)

Barbara Low was born in London as the youngest of eleven children in an Anglo-Jewish family with Austrian and Hungarian parents. She attended the Frances Mary Buss School and University College in London, before training as a teacher at the Maria Grey Training College. Subsequently she taught for several years in girls' schools and a boys' school. After the end of World War I she was for some years a lecturer in education, literature, and history at the London County Council Training College for Teachers at Fulham. She joined the Labour Party and was a member of the left-wing intellectual Fabian Society.
Barbara Low was first introduced to psychoanalysis by her brother-in-law, David Eder, who was a co-founder of the London Psycho-Analytic Society in 1913. In 1919 she herself belonged to the founding members of the British Psycho-Analytical Society. She began her psychoanalytic training with Hanns Sachs in Berlin and continued it with Ernest Jones in London. It was her friend D. H. Lawrence, who gave her the manuscript of Sea and Sardinia, which enabled her to pay for the analysis.
Impressed by the psychoanalytic polyclinic in Berlin, Barbara Low urged the setting up in London of a similar organisation for the free treatment of patients without means, which opened in 1926. Like Susan Isaacs and Nina Searl she was especially interested in the application of psychoanalysis to education and published a number of papers on this subject in the IJP. She rejected the ideas of Melanie Klein on child psychoanalysis and during the Freud-Klein Controversies she was a staunch supporter of Anna Freud, whose Einführung in die Psychoanalyse für Pädagogen she translated into English.
In 1920 Barbara Low's book Psycho-Analysis. A Brief Account of the Freudian Theory was published. In this introduction for a wider public she conceived the term "Nirvana-principle", which Sigmund Freud acknowledged and used in Beyond the Pleasure Principle. This meant for Low the desire to return into an ante-natal stage of omnipotence, where no non-fulfilled desires exist - in Freud's words: the effect to reduce, to keep constant or to remove internal tension due to stimuli. (Top of the article)

Julia Mannheim née Lang (1893/95?-1955)

Julia Mannheim was born Károlyne Júlia Láng in Hungary. She studied philosophy and psychology from 1911 to 1916, and after graduating as a doctor in psychology she became an Assistant Lecturer at the University of Budapest. She joined the so-called Sonntagskreis, a left-wing literary-philosophical circle, with which Edith Gyömröi was also associated. In this circle she met her future husband, Karl Mannheim (1893-1947), who lectured in philosophy at the Humanistic University of Budapest and who emigrated in 1919 to Germany after the suppression of the Hungarian Soviet Republic. In 1920 she followed him into German exile, where they married one year later at Heidelberg. Karl Mannheim was an Assistant Lecturer in sociology at the University of Heidelberg, before he was called to the Chair of Sociology and Economics at Frankfurt University in 1930.
Julia Mannheim was introduced to psychoanalysis during her work at a Child Guidance Clinic, directed by H. Homburger, a paediatrician, who was interested in the ideas of Sigmund Freud. At the beginning of the 1930s she started psychoanalytic training in Frankfurt am Main, but had to interrupt it, when Karl Mannheim was dismissed in 1933 because of his Jewish origins.

Isabel Menzies Lyth (1917-2008)

Isabel Menzies Lyth, a British psychoanalyst in the tradition of Melanie Klein and Wilfred R. Bion, was a pioneer of the psychoanalytic study of organisations. Born in Dysart, Fife, in Scotland, as the fourth child of the minister Hugh Menzies, she attended Madras College in St Andrews. She studied psychology and economics at St Andrews University, where she lectured in economics from 1939 to 1945.
After the end of the war she began psychoanalytic training in London and was the only woman in a group of psychiatrists and psychologists - among them her analyst Wilfred R. Bion - who founded the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations (TIHR) in 1946. In 1954 she became a member, and in 1960 a training analyst of the British Psychoanalytical Society. In 1957 she qualified as a child analyst.
Beside her private practice as a psychoanalyst, she acted as consultant to a number of institutions and carried out many research studies with the TIHR until 1975, most significantly in the context of healthcare. She worked, inter alia, with the nursery nurses at the Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital in Stanmore, in order to improve the situation of children being treated as inpatients for a long period of time. In 1975 she married the psychoanalyst Oliver Lyth and moved to Oxford.
In her most famous paper, first published in 1959, The functioning of social systems as a defense against anxiety, drawing on her experiences working with nurses at the London King's College Hospital, Isabel Menzies was able to analyse the dynamics of certain social systems. She maintained, that the nurses' unconscious defense against anxiety connected with their task lead to detachment and depersonalisation of their relations to the patients. This was reinforced institutionally by a rigid hierarchy of roles and tasks, uniforms etc.. According to Menzies, social structures such as these are dominated by defense mechanisms, which have been described by Melanie Klein as the paranoid-schizoid defenses. (Top of the article)

Merrell Middlemore (?-1938)

The child analyst Merrell Philippa Middlemore, a member of the British Psychoanalytical Society, was an adherent of Melanie Klein. Trained as an obstetrician and as a psychologist, she was in the 1930s one of the few analysts whose knowledge was based on the empiric observation of infants during the first two years of life. In her book The Nursing Couple, dealing with the feeding responses of infants in the first days of life, she showed how varied and complex even the earliest responses of the new-born were, and how intimately the experiences of being handled and suckled influenced the succeeding phases of feeling and later fantasy. Middlemore stressed, that in connection with the different habits of sucking, rudimentary psychic processes arose, which were within a few months organised so as to become fantasy.

Marion Milner née Blackett (1900-1998)

Nina Marion Milner was born in London as the youngest of three children. Her father Arthur Blackett worked on the London Stock Exchange, her mother Caroline Maynard was an enthusiastic painter. After first starting as a Montessori teacher, Marion Blackett studied psychology and physiology at University College London. She graduated as a psychologist in 1923 and subsequently worked at the National Institute of Industrial Psychology. Invited by the industrial psychologist Elton Mayo (who was then working on his famous Hawthorne Experiments), she went in 1927 on a fellowship to Boston.
The same year she married Dennis Milner (1892-1956), inventor, amateur economist, play writer, and also well-known for his call for a minimum income for all citizens. Their son John was born in 1932.
Introduced to psychoanalytic ideas by Adrian and Karin Stephen, friends of her brother Patrick Blackett, the physicist and later Nobel prize-winner, Marion Milner went into analysis with a Jungian in Boston. After her return to England in 1929, she worked as a psychologist for a girls' school, until war broke out in 1939. She did research into pupils' problems (The Human Problem in Schools) and gave psychology lectures for the Workers Education Association. In 1934 (under the pseudonym of "Joanna Field") her autobiographical book A Life of One's Own, the first and best known of her journal based books, was published.
In 1940 Marion Milner began a training analysis with Sylvia Payne and trained as a child analyst at the London Psychoanalytic Institute. One of her patients was Melanie Klein's 11-year-old grandson Michael, whose case she described in her paper Aspects of symbolism in comprehension of the not-self. In 1943 she became a member of the British Psychoanalytical Society, where she joined the Independent Group. She undertook further analysis with Donald W. Winnicott and at the same time she began analysing a schizophrenic young woman, "Susan", a foster daughter of Winnicott's wife Alice. Milner described the treatment of Susan from 1943 to 1959 in her book The Hands of the Living God. She continued her own analysis in 1949 with Clifford Scott.
Marion Milner was especially interested in the mechanisms of symbolisation. Inspired by Melanie Klein's thesis of symbolism as the basis of all sublimation, she arrived at the formulation that creativity lay in the capacity for making a symbol - not only in the service of defense (Ernest Jones) or reparation (Melanie Klein), but of making something new. Artistic activity, she concluded, repeats the illusion of inner-outer fusion and omnipotence experienced in the mother-child-relation, but in a conscious way. (Top of the article)

Juliet Mitchell (*1940)

Juliet Mitchell was born in New Zealand but has lived in London since she was four years old. She attended St Anne's College in Oxford until 1962 and was then a lecturer in English literature at the universities of Leeds (1962/63) and Reading (1965-1971). In the 1960s she played an active part in the left movement and was a companion of the anti-psychiatrist David Cooper (1931-1986).
Juliet Mitchell was the first Anglo-Saxon feminist who used psychoanalysis as a tool to liberate women. Struck by American feminists' attacks on Sigmund Freud's theories about sexuality, Mitchell became interested in psychoanalysis. As a response she published in 1974 her famous book Psychoanalysis and Feminism, in which she stressed, that psychoanalysis was no glorification of the patriarchal system, but its analysis. Anti-Freudian feminists would often ignore, that Freud - e. g. with regard to penis envy - spoke of unconscious mechanisms and not of what was conscious and "normal". In spite of some mistakes, Freud had delivered a theoretical instrument to help understand and to fight the oppression of women. Mitchell's conclusion from her implicitly Lacanian reading of Freud was, that he had much more to offer to the feminist movement than the apparently more radical approaches of Wilhelm Reich and Ronald D. Laing.
After publishing her main work, Mitchell began psychoanalytic training at the London Institute of Psychoanalysis in 1974. Her training analyst was Enid Balint. In 1978 she became an associate member and in 1988 a full member of the British Psychoanalytical Society, where she joined the Independent Group. From 1978 to 1996 she operated a psychoanalytic practice in London.
Juliet Mitchell is Professor Emeritus of Psychoanalysis and Gender Studies at the University of Cambridge and Emeritus Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge. In addition she has been a visiting professor and lecturer at more than twenty universities. (Top of the article)

Lois Munro (1907-1973)

Lois Mary Munro studied medicine and obtained her medical qualifications in 1931 at the London School of Medicine for Women. After training at the London Institute of Psychoanalysis, where she was analysed by Paula Heimann, she qualified as an associate member of the British Psychoanalytical Society in 1948, becoming a member in 1951. She was regarded as an "independent Kleinian" and highly esteemed for her intuition and empathy, but also for her talent as a storyteller.
In the 1950s Lois Munro promoted psychoanalysis in Czechoslovakia by maintaining contact between the illegal psychoanalytic group in Prague and their Western colleagues. As a member of a Sponsoring Committee of the IPA she supported the formation of a psychoanalytic Study Group in Australia in the late 1960s. From 1960 to 1969, she served as the director of the London Clinic of Psychoanalysis, and in 1971 she was a founder member of the Royal College of Psychiatry. At the time of her death, she was the Hon. Treasurer of the European Psycho-Analytical Federation. One of her last analysands at the beginning of the 1970s was Clare Winnicott.

Jessie Murray (1867-1920)

Jessie Margaret Murray was not a formally trained analyst, but as the founder and director of the Medico-Psychological Clinic she played an important role in the history of Psychoanalysis in Britain. As the eldest of three sisters, she was born in Hazaribagh, northeast India, where her father, Hugh Murray, was serving as a lieutenant in the Royal Artillery. In 1880 the family returned to Britain. In 1900 Jessie Murray began to study at the London School of Medicine for Women, graduating MB, BS in 1909 at the University of Durham. Her bachelor's degree included studies in psychological medicine. After graduating, she attended lectures on clinical psychology given by Pierre Janet in Paris. Between 1908 and 1920, she also had three periods of studying psychology at University College London. She was awarded an MD by the University of Durham in 1919.
In 1913 Jesse Murray, her friend Julia Turner, Hector Munro and others founded the Medico-Psychological Clinic in London, later known as the Brunswick Square Clinic, which was lead by Murray until her death. The Medico-Psychological Clinic was the first public clinic in Britain to offer psychoanalytic therapy and training in psychoanalysis. In 1915 Jesse Murray established the first psychoanalytic training programme, a three-year course, which included undergoing a personal analysis. A number of famous British psychoanalysts, including Nina Searl, Susan Isaacs, Sylvia Payne, James Glover, Mary Chadwick and Ella Freeman Sharpe, received their first analysis or training there. The majority of the students were not medically qualified. Most of them had their analysis with Jessie Murray or Julia Turner.
Jessie Murray was also a member of the British Society for the Study of Sex Psychology and was involved in the suffragette movement. She died prematurely of ovarian cancer. Two years after her death the Brunswick Square Clinic was closed in 1922.

Edna Oakeshott née Yates (1904-1999)

Edna Mary Yates was born in Didsbury, a suburb of Manchester. The daughter of Percy Yates, a seed merchant, and his wife Edith, née Wright, she had an elder brother, Frank Yates, who became an eminent statistician, and three younger sisters. In 1928 she married Lindley Henshaw, with whom she had three children.
In the early 1940s Edna Henshaw was appointed as an educational psychologist to the Mental Health Emergency Committee, to investigate and report on juvenile delinquency in State and Church schools in Bradford. She had a PhD and taught as an assistant in pedagogy at the University of Manchester. In 1941, she began psychoanalytic training at the newly founded Manchester Training Centre, underwent her training analysis with Michael Balint and became a member of the British Psychoanalytical Society. She divorced her first husband and married Michael Balint in 1944. But the marriage deteriorated and after divorcing Balint in 1952, she married Stephen Oakeshott.
Edna Oakeshott specialized in lecturing on the "Education of Maladjusted Children" at the Institute of Education, University of London, and was awarded the O.B.E. for her work in this field. A memoir of Edna Oakeshott was published by her daughter Joanna Rotberg in 2003.

Edna O'Shaughnessy (*1924)

Edna O´Shaughnessy was born in South Africa, where she studied philosophy and later taught this subject in Oxford. In the 1950s she began an analysis with Charles Anderson and continued it after his death with Roger Money-Kyrle. At the same time she trained as a child psychotherapist at the Tavistock Clinic and attended the seminars of Melanie Klein. She then had a practice as a child analyst and also a part-time lectureship in the Child Development Department founded by Susan Isaacs at the Institute of Education, London.
Starting in the 1960s, Edna O´Shaughnessy has been a member and training analyst of the British Psychoanalytical Society. In addition she is a supervisor in the Child and Family Department of the Tavistock Clinic. She joined the Kleinian Group and is regarded as one of the most distinguished analysts of the BPAS. In 1975 she was a co-editor of The Writings of Melanie Klein.
Influenced by Sigmund Freud, Melanie Klein and Wilfred R. Bion, Edna O´Shaughnessy's work is characterized by clinical immediacy and epistemologically valid conceptualisation. She concentrates on the investigation of the unconscious phantasies, which she understood - in the sense of Klein respectively Isaacs - as the primary content of all psychic processes. The most important task for her is to articulate the unconscious phantasies emerging in the dynamic of transference and counter-transference.

• SELECTED WORKS
• The absent object. J Child Psychother 1, 1964, 34-43
• The picture theory of meaning. In I. M. Copi and R. W. Beard (eds): Essays on Wittgenstein's Tractatus. London 1966, 115-131
• A clinical study of a defensive organization. IJP 62, 1981, 359-369 [Klinische Untersuchung einer Abwehrorganisation. In E. B. Spillius (ed.): Melanie Klein heute, Bd. 1. München u.a. 1990, 367-390]

Grace W. Pailthorpe (1883-1971)

Grace Winifred Pailthorpe, a surrealist artist and a psychoanalyst, was born in St Leonards-on-Sea, Sussex, the third of ten children of the stockbroker Edward Pailthorpe and his wife Lavinia Green. She studied medicine at Cambridge and served as a surgeon during World War I. During several years' travel abroad she worked as a physician in Australia. In 1922 she returned to England and trained as a psychoanalyst at the London Psychoanalytic Institute. In 1923 she became an associate member of the British Psychoanalytical Society.
Grace Pailthorpe specialized in psychological medicine. In the 1920s she investigated the psychology of women in prisons and in preventive and rescue homes for five years. The results of her psychoanalytic study were published in her books Studies in the Psychology of Delinquency and What We Put in Prison and in Preventive and Rescue Homes. In 1931 Pailthorpe initiated the Association for the Scientific Treatment of Criminals, from which emerged, with the assistance of Edward Glover and Kate Friedländer, the Institute for the Scientific Treatment of Delinquency and in 1933 the Portman Clinic.
In 1935, with her later husband, the artist Reuben Mednikoff (1906-1972), Grace Pailhorpe began her research into automatic drawing and painting. In her article The scientific aspect of surrealism she argued that the final goals of surrealism and psychoanalysis were the same: the liberation of the individual. Through surrealist techniques unconscious fantasies could be set free and subsequently reintegrated with the conscious. In 1936 she took part in the International Surrealist Exhibition in London, where her works from a series titled The Ancestors were greatly admired by André Breton.
During the Second World War, Pailthorpe and Mednikoff lived in Vancouver, Canada, where Grace Pailthorpe worked as a psychoanalyst. In 1941 her paper Deflection of energy, as a result of birth trauma was published, in which she pleaded for greater attention to be paid to the trauma of birth in the analysis. In 1947 Grace Pailthorpe returned to England and practiced at the beginning of the 1950s as a psychoanalyst in London. In later years she turned to Eastern mysticism - to the detriment of surrealism, because she beqeathed her large collection of surrealist art to a yoga society, which burned it. (Top of the article)

Sylvia Payne née Moore (1880-1976)

Sylvia May Payne was born in Wimbledon, Surrey, where she grew up as a daughter of a clergyman and as one of nine siblings. She went to Wimbledon High School and wanted to enter a musical college at the age of thirteen, but finally decided to become a physician. She attended Westfield College and studied medicine at the London School of Medicine for Women. In 1908 she was awarded a joint bachelor of science and bachelor of medicine degree. The same year she married a surgeon, John Ernest Payne, with whom she had three sons.
During World War I Sylvia Payne was Commandant and Medical Officer in charge of Torquay Red Cross Hospital. While working with shell-shocked patients, she first heard about the work of Sigmund Freud. In 1919 she started analysis in London with James Glover and went to Berlin in 1920 to have analysis with Hanns Sachs. Back in London she became an associate member of the British Psychoanalytical Society (BPAS) in 1922, and a member in 1924.
She established a psychoanalytic practice in Eastbourne, where her husband was working as a general practitioner. In 1926 she joined the staff of the London Clinic of Psycho-Analysis. In 1927 she was elected to the training committee of the BPAS; in 1929 she replaced John Rickman as Secretary of the Institute of Psychoanalysis, and she was elected Business Secretary of the BPAS.
In the controversies between the Anna Freudians and Kleinians, Sylvia Payne took an independent role, although she sympathized with the ideas of Melanie Klein. In her article Some observations on the ego development of the fetishist, for instance, she based her discussion of fetishism centred on a Kleinian model of early ego development and internal objects. Payne moved the development of fetishism back from the stage of phallic castration anxiety to a much earlier stage of ego development, when part objects of the mother and father are introjected into the internal world of girls as well as boys.
During the Second World War, Ernest Jones, who left London, entrusted Sylvia Payne with the administration of the BPAS, when the Freud-Klein Controversies reached its height. She managed to broker an agreement between the Anna Freudians and Kleinians, and thanks to her efforts at mediation, the BPAS did not split after the war. Sylvia Payne served as president of the BPAS from 1944 to 1947 and again from 1954 to 1956. (Top of the article)

Irma Brenman Pick

The Kleinian psychoanalyst Irma Brenman Pick gained an honours degree in social sciences from the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg. In 1955 she came to London to train as a child psychotherapist at the Tavistock Clinic and later as an adult and child analyst at the British Psychoanalytical Society (BPAS), where she became a disciple of Melanie Klein.
Irma Brenman Pick is a training analyst and supervisor and was a president of the BPAS from 1996 to 1999. In addition she was a chairwoman of the IPA Committee on Psychoanalytic Education. Her son David Pick born in 1960, is also a psychoanalyst. In 1975 she married the British psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Eric Brenman (1920-2012).
Her paper Working through in the countertransference about the counter-transference of the analyst and the working through of his emotional responses to the patient's projections received special attention: "Constant projecting by the patient into the analyst" she stressed, "is the essence of analysis; every interpretation aims at a move from the paranoid-schizoid to the depressive position, which is true not only for the patient, but for the analyst who needs again and aigain to regress and to work through."

• WORKS
• On stealing. J Child Psychother 2 (l), 1967, 67-79
• Breakdown in communication. On finding the child in the analysis of an adult. Psychoanal Psychother 1, 1985, 57-62

Dinora Pines (1918-2002)

Dinora Pines was born in Lutsk, then in Russia, as the eldest of three children in a Jewish family. Her father Noe Pines was an ophthalmic surgeon, her mother Rebecca Jaschunsky had also studied medicine. Her brother Malcolm Pines, like her, became a psychoanalyst. During the Russian Civil War, the family moved to Antwerp, and from there in 1921 to London, where her father worked as a general practitioner. After graduating in modern languages at the London University College, Dinora Pines began in 1940 her medical training at the London School of Medicine for Women and qualified as a doctor in 1945. She then worked as a dermatologist at the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital for women in London, where she met Hilda Abraham and became interested in psychoanalysis.
In 1947 Dinora Pines married Anthony Lewison (?-1993), a lawyer, with whom she had two sons. While working as a general practitioner in London, she began psychoanalytic training with Anna Freud at the Hampstead Child Therapy Course and Clinic in 1959, qualifying in 1965. From then on she worked in a private psychoanalytic practice and as a training analyst and supervisor at the London Institute of Psychoanalysis. In addition she worked at the Brent Consultation Centre for Adolescents. In the BPAS she belonged to the Anna Freudian B-Group.
A number of Dinora Pines' papers dealt with the bodily experiences of women. She wrote on pregnancy, infertility, abortion etc. and discussed the ways in which bodily experiences can, if fuelled by deprivation, pain or fear, result in physical disorders. These articles are collected in her book A Woman's Unconscious Use of her Body, published in 1993. Another main theme of her writings was her work with women who had survived the Holocaust. Pines described their survival strategies and the effects of their experiences on their children.

Joan Riviere née Verrall (1883-1962)

The Kleinian psychoanalyst Joan Riviere, the eldest of three siblings, was born in Brighton, Sussex, to an intellectual and literary family of the English landowning upper classes. Her father, Hugh John Verrall, with whom she was very close, was a socially committed lawyer, her mother, Anna Hodgson, worked as a governess before marrying. At 17, Joan Hodgson Verrall spent a year in Germany, where she learnt German. She received her academic education from her uncle, Arthur W. Verrall and his wife Margret, both lecturers in classics at Cambridge. Joan Verrall was associated with the Bloomsbury Group and involved in suffragette activity. Educated as designer, she worked for a time as a court dressmaker with the firm of Nettleship.
In 1906 she married the barrister Evelyn Riviere (1876-1945), her only child, Diana, was born two years later. After her father had died in 1909, Joan Riviere suffered a breakdown, leading her to seek help from the analyst Ernest Jones. In 1916 she began her analysis with Jones, which later was converted into a training analysis and ended in 1921. The analysis failed, and in 1922 Joan Riviere went to Vienna for analysis with Sigmund Freud - with evident success.
In 1919 Riviere was a founding member of the British Psycho-Analytical Society. From 1920 to 1937 she worked as translation editor of the International Journal of Psychoanalysis and together with James and Alix Strachey she translated the first English edition of Freud's work, the Collected Papers, published in 1924/25. Riviere's translations are seen to be particularly successfull because of her eloquent literary style, which characterized her own writings too.
Joan Riviere's friendship with Melanie Klein began in 1924. She translated Klein's works into English and became an articulate proponent of her ideas. In 1927 she first attacked the positions of Anna Freud in her paper Symposium on child analysis. Among other aspects she contradicted Anna Freud's view that in child analysis there can be no transference to the analyst, because in children the Oedipus situation is still active in relation to the original objects - the parents. However, Riviere stated that the objects of Oedipal and pregenital phantasies are not the real father and mother at all, but the unconscious imagos of them, which are transferred to the real parents. On account of this view Sigmund Freud accused her of taking a path to the derealization of analysis.
Joan Riviere became a training analyst and member of the BPAS training committee in 1930. Her lectures given in collaboration with Melanie Klein at the London Institute of Psychoanalysis were published in 1937 under the title Love, Hate, and Reparation. Prior to Melanie Klein, in her paper Jealousy as a mechanism of defense (1932), Riviere found jealousy to be a defense against envy aroused by the primal scene, and she was the first to develop the concept of reparation in 1936. Her paper On the genesis of psychical conflict in earliest infancy, read in Vienna, in which she described the inner world of the "Kleinian infant", is considered to be one of the most brilliant essays on Kleinian thinking.
In her paper Womanliness as a masquerade (presumably her best known work today) she examined the intellectually and professionally successful type of woman, who at the same time seems to be completely feminine. Joan Riviere declared that the exhibition of "masculine" skills, equated with the castration of the father's penis, causes a fear of retribution, against which this type of woman wants to protect herself by assuming a particularly feminine role. Womanliness therefore can be worn as a mask to hide the possession of masculinity. Most notably, Riviere's conclusion that there is no difference between genuine womanliness and the mask of womanliness, inspired Jacques Lacan and the gender discussions of the 1990s.
At the end of 1938, Joan Riviere withdrew, due to illness, from her leading positions in the BPAS, but continued her teaching and training activities. She remained in the background during the Freud-Klein Controversies in the 1940s. In the 1950s her relationship with Melanie Klein became more reserved, for example she did not share Klein's interest in the analysis of psychotics.
Joan Riviere died from pulmonary emphysema. (Top of the article)

Anne-Marie Sandler née Weil

Anne-Marie Weil was born in Geneva, where she studied psychology and worked for a time as an assistant of Jean Piaget. At the beginning of the 1950s she came to England and trained in child analysis with Anna Freud. She underwent training analysis with Edith Gyömröi, became a training and supervising analyst of the British Psychoanalytical Society and established a psychoanalytic practice in London. In 1957 she married Joseph Sandler (1927-1998), a psychoanalyst born in South Africa, with whom she had two children: Catherine and Paul. They collaborated on a number of papers and engaged in promoting the European Psychoanalytical Federation (EPF). Anne Marie Sandler was president of the EPF from 1983 to 1987, president of the BPAS from 1990 to 1993, and director of the Anna Freud Centre from 1993 to 1996. She is also an honorary member of the Deutsche Psychoanalytische Gesellschaft.
Although a loyal follower of Anna Freud, she has been inspired by the ideas of Melanie Klein too. Her book Internal Objects Revisited, which includes key contributions by Joseph and Anne-Marie Sandler, provides a theoretical basis for integrating a theory of internal object relations into an post-ego-psychological frame of reference.

• WORKS
• Aspects of passivity and ego development in the blind infant. Psa Study Child 18, 1963, 343-360
• Comments on the significance of Piaget's work for psychoanalysis. Int Rev Psycho-Anal 2, 1975, 365-377

Melitta Schmideberg née Klein (1904-1983)

Melitta Klein was born in Rosenberg, then in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The oldest of three siblings, she was the only daughter of the psychoanalyst Melanie Klein and the chemical engineer Arthur Klein. In 1910 the family moved to Budapest, where Melanie Klein began to analyse Melitta ("Lisa") and her brothers. At the age of fifteen, Melitta Klein was allowed to attend the meetings of the Budapest Psychoanalytic Association, of which her mother was a member.
In 1921 Melanie Klein went to Berlin, where Melitta Klein joined her, to study medicine. She obtained her MD in 1927, the subject of her thesis was Geschichte der homöopathischen Bewegung in Ungarn [The history of the homeopathic movement in Hungary]. In Berlin Melitta Klein met Walter Schmideberg (1890-1954), an Austrian psychoanalyst, whom she married in 1924. In 1929 she started her psychoanalytic training with Karen Horney, qualifying as an associate member of the Deutsche Psychoanalytische Vereinigung in 1931.
In 1928, in view of the National Socialist threat, the Schmidebergs emigrated to London, where Melanie Klein had been living since 1926. Melitta Schmideberg went into analysis with Edward Glover, an opponent of Melanie Klein. In 1933 she was elected a full member of the British Psychoanalytical Society and eventually became a training analyst.
Initially she often made use of her mother's ideas in her papers, but in her membership paper The play analysis of a three-year-old girl, she already differed from them by ascribing the girl's problems to a failure of her mother, so to real exterior factors. During her analysis with Glover she became estranged from her mother. She began to attack her in public and questioned the empiric basis of the Kleinian views. Her desire to become independent from her mother resulted in an unforgiving hatred.
In 1945 Melitta Schmideberg went to New York, where she worked with juvenile delinquents and helped to found the Association for the Psychiatric Treatment of Offenders in 1950. She developed her own form of psychotherapy, and in 1962, a year after her return to London, she resigned her membership of the BPAS. She devoted herself to the treatment and reintegration of delinquents and founded in 1957 the International Journal of Offender Therapy, of which she was the managing editor. (Top of the article)

• SELECTED WORKS
• Geschichte der homöopathischen Bewegung in Ungarn. Leipzig 1929
• Psychotic mechanisms in relation to the development of civilisation. IJP 11, 1930, 387-418

Nina Searl (?-1955)

M. Nina Searl received her psychoanalytic training at the Brunswick Square Clinic in London and had been analysed by Hanns Sachs in Berlin. She was particularly interested in the application of psychoanalysis to education and was an early pioneer of child analysis in the British Psychoanalytical Society (BPAS). In 1920 she conducted her first analysis with a six-year-old girl, even before Melanie Klein's studies on child analysis became known in Great Britain. She was presumably the first to present a paper to the BPAS on the technique of child analysis.
Nina Searl was a training analyst at the London Institute of Psychoanalysis and a significant contributor to the scientific discussion, publishing fourteen articles from 1924 to 1938. After 1925 she was a comrade-in-arms of Melanie Klein in the controversies with Anna Freud. Her psychoanalytic career ended abruptly, when she resigned from the BPAS in 1937. Melitta Schmideberg accused the Kleinians of leading a crusade against Searl since 1932. Nina Searl herself gave as a reason for her decision, among others, that in her opinion psychoanalysis should leave room for the expression of a higher religious ideal, and that she wished to co-operate with a group interested in spiritual healing. It is said, that Nina Searl's life ended with her being a nun or a resident in a convent.
One of her last papers, Some queries on principles of technique, an exposition on the significance of resistance analysis, has been recently considered as a pre-eminent example of an ego psychological approach to the psychoanalytic process, a remarkable historical document that anticipated later developments.

• WORKS
• Some analytical illustrations from a child's behaviour. IJP 5, 1924, 358-362
• Thump-sucking, ear-pulling and left-handedness. IJP 5, 1924, 363-364
• A case of stammering in a child. IJP 8, 1927, 65-69

Hanna Segal née Poznanska (1918-2011)

Hanna Segal is one of the most distinguished Kleinian thinkers. She was born in Lodz, Poland, in a well-assimilated Jewish family. She grew up in Warsaw, where her father, Czeslaw Poznanski, was a lawyer. Her mother, Isabelle Weintraub, was a friend of the psychoanalyst Eugénie Sokolnicka whom Hanna met, when she was a child. After her father's practice had gone bankrupt, the family settled in Geneva in 1931, where Poznanski took up a post as the editor of a journal.
In 1934 Hanna Poznanska returned to Warsaw to finish her schooling there and to study medicine. At the outbreak of the Second World War she happened to be in Paris, where her parents had been living since 1938. She continued her medical studies in France until she had to flee from the invading German army in 1940. She escaped to Britain, where she graduated as a doctor from the Polish Medical School at Edinburgh University in 1943.
In Edinburgh she spent one year in analysis with the Kleinian David Matthew. In 1943 she moved to London to begin her formal psychoanalytic training at the Institute of Psychoanalysis. She worked as a surgeon at Paddington Green Hospital for children and as a psychiatrist at Long Grove Hospital. Her training analyst was Melanie Klein. She qualified in 1945, and in 1949 she became a full member of the British Psychoanalytical Society, after presenting her membership paper Some aspects of the analysis of a schizophrenic. Since 1952 she has been a training analyst. In 1946 she married Paul Segal, a mathematician, with whom she had three sons.
Hanna Segal is known both for her lucid expositions of Melanie Klein's work, and for her own seminal contributions to psychoanalytic theory and technique. It was Segal who created one of the clearest Kleinian definitions of the death instinct - not as a biological drive to return to the inorganic but as a psychological wish to annihilate the sudden change brought about by birth. Segal was one of the first to analyse psychotics using Kleinian concepts. She developed the notion of "symbolic equation" to characterize the psychotic's lack of capacity to distinguish between the symbol and the object symbolised. Developing Klein's theory of symbolism, she described the important role of the depressive position in symbol formation and in artistic creativity. In her contributions on aesthetics she shed light on the creative use of symbols in ordinary life and works of art.
Hanna Segal held numerous important positions within the BPAS, including being president from 1977 to 1980. In 1977 she was appointed to the Freud professorship at University College London. She was awarded the Sigourney award for contributions to psychoanalysis in 1992. (Top of the article)

• SELECTED WORKS
• Some aspects of the analysis of a schizophrenic. IJP 31, 1950, 268-278 [Aspekte der Analyse eines schizophrenen Patienten. In E. B. Spillius (ed.): Melanie Klein Heute, Bd. 2: Anwendungen. München u.a. 1991]
• A psycho-analytical approach to aesthetics. IJP 33, 1952, 196-207

Ilse Seglow née Seligmann (1900-1984)

Ilse Seglow, a pioneer of group analysis, was born in Hamburg as the daughter of the Rabbi Caesar Seligmann and Ella Kauffmann. She had two older brothers and a younger sister. When she was two years old, the family moved to Frankfurt am Main.
Her first marriage was with Martin Goldner, a physician, but they divorced after two years. She became an actress and met her future husband, Joseph Ziegellaub, on the fringes of the theatre world. At the end of the 1920s she began to study sociology in Frankfurt. Supervised by Karl Mannheim and Norbert Elias, she started to write a doctoral thesis about Schauspiel und Gesellschaft. She then decided to become a psychoanalyst and went into analysis with Karl Landauer.
In 1933 Ilse and Joseph Ziegellaub fled from the Nazi regime to Paris, where their son Peter was born a year later. After returning to Germany with false papers, they lived in 1935/36 in Berlin, where Ilse Ziegellaub worked in the nursery school of her friend Nelly Wolffheim. In 1937 she and her husband emigrated to Great Britain. She participated in a diploma course for psychiatric social workers run by the London School of Economics in Cambridge, and in 1944 she began psychoanalysis with Hilde Maas in London. The same year Ilse Seglow (the anglicised version of Ziegellaub) divorced her second husband.
Ilse Seglow failed to obtain membership of the British Psychoanalytical Society, partly on the grounds of her age. Her training analysis with August Aichhorn, which she started in 1949 in Vienna, ended early, when Aichhorn died at the end of the first year. In the following years, Ilse Seglow worked as a psychiatric social worker and psychotherapist, until she retired in her early sixties from official professional life, so as to be free to practice psychotherapy. In 1952 she co-founded the British Association of Psychotherapists (BAP), and after a split within the BAP, Ilse Seglow founded the London Centre for Psychotherapy in 1973, which she led, somewhat autocratically, until her old age. She helped found the Institut für Gruppenanalyse in Heidelberg, on the work of which she exerted significant influence. (Top of the article)

Ella Freeman Sharpe (1875-1947)

Ella Sharpe was born in Haverhill, Suffolk. The eldest of three daughters, she was closely attached to her father, with whom she shared a love of Shakespeare and of English literature. Her father died when she was in her teens, and she took over responsibility for the family. She studied literature, drama, and poetry at Nottingham University, but resigned to pursue advanced studies at Oxford, in order to earn money. She then taught English literature at a number of schools, finally at the Hucknall Teachers' Training College from 1904 to 1916.
After the dissolution of a close friendship and the deaths of friends and pupils in World War I, Ella Sharpe became depressed and suffered anxiety attacks. She went to the Medico-Psychological Clinic in Brunswick Square, London, where she was treated successfully by Jessie Murray and the analyst James Glover and became interested in psychoanalysis. In 1917 she gave up teaching to study psychoanalysis at the Clinic. Three years later she went to Berlin to be analysed by Hanns Sachs. She was elected an associate member of the British Psychoanalytical Society in 1921, and a full member in 1923.
Ella Sharpe was a training analyst of the London Institute of Psychoanalysis and one of the first child analysts in Britain. Having initially been a follower of Melanie Klein, she later belonged to the Middle Group of the independents. When World War II broke out, she was a director of the Institute and played a role as an intermediary in the 1940s Freud-Klein Controversies.
Ella Sharpe was one of the first to highlight the role of counter-transference in her lectures on psychoanalytic technique. She was also interested in the conditions of artistic creativity, especially in the differences between the artist and the neurotic. She believed that there is a reality system in the artist, which enables him to externalise the creatures of his fantasy instead of assuming the part of them in real life, like the neurotic does. Her greatest contribution to psychoanalytic theory was her work on Dream Analysis. She was the first to state in 1937 that the mechanisms of dream work and symbolisation have their exact counterparts in poetic diction - an observation which twenty years later Jacques Lacan took up again in his formula "l'inconscient est structuré comme un langage".
Ella Freeman Sharpe died of a heart attack. (Top of the article)

Elizabeth Bott Spillius (*1924)

Elizabeth Bott grew up in Canada in an academic family. She studied psychology in Toronto and anthropology in Chicago, where she earned an MA in 1949. The same year she went to London to do further work in anthropology at the London School of Economics and the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations (TIHR). In 1956 she was awarded her PhD, her doctoral research Family and Social Network soon became a standard work in anthropology.
During her research activity at the TIHR she came into contact with the ideas of Melanie Klein, and in 1956 she began training at the London Institute of Psychoanalysis. Her training analyst was Lois Munro. From 1958 to 1960 she interrupted her psychoanalytic training and joined her husband, the Canadian anthropologist James Spillius, to do anthropological field-work in the kingdom of Tonga, South Pacific. In 1964 she became a full member of the British Psychoanalytical Society, and in 1975 a training and supervising analyst.
Besides her lecturing to students, she took an active part in the Training Committee of the BPAS, where she initiated the systematic integration of Esther Bick's method of infant observation into psychoanalytic training. From 1988 to 1998 she was general editor of the series New Library of Psychoanalysis, published by Routledge in cooperation with the Institute of Psychoanalysis.
Elizabeth Bott Spillius occupies a unique position among contemporary Kleinian psychoanalysts. The main characteristics of her writings are the dual viewpoints of a psychoanalyst and an anthropologist. She is internationally known by her brilliant and comprehensible introductions to the work of Melanie Klein. In addition, she participated with her own studies in the further development of the Kleinian theory and technique.

• SELECTED WORKS
• Family and Social Network. Roles, Norms, and External Relationships in Ordinary Urban Families (1957). London; New York 2008

Karin Stephen née Costelloe (1889-1953)

Catherine Elizabeth "Karin" Stephen was the youngest daughter of Frank Costelloe, a Northern Irish convert to Roman Catholicism, and Mary Pearsall Smith, a Philadelphia Quaker. Her mother deserted the family because of another man, and her adored father died, when Karin was ten (Fig.1). So she and her sister Ray were brought up by their Quaker grandmother. Both of them attended Newnham College (for women only) in Cambridge, where Karin Costelloe was a pupil of her uncle, Bertrand Russell, and the philosopher George Edward Moore. In 1912 she was elected to membership of the Aristotelian Society. Probably she wrote her book on Henri Bergson, The Misuse of Mind, at about this time.
She joined the Bloomsbury Group and in 1914 she married Adrian Stephen (1883-1948), a younger brother of Virginia Woolf. Her two daughters Ann and Judith were born in 1915 and 1918 (Fig.2). Karin and Adrian Stephen sympathised with socialist and pacifist ideas and spent the First World War working on a farm in Essex. After the war they both applied to be trained as psychoanalysts, but Ernest Jones made them take a medical degree first. They went into analysis with James Glover. After he died, Karin Stephen underwent training analysis with Sylvia Payne and became in 1927 an associate and in 1931 a full member of the British Psychoanalytical Society. In 1927 she went for a time to Baltimore, to work at the Sheppard and Enoch Pratt Hospital and had a second analysis with Clara Thompson. After the Freud-Klein Controversies in the 1940s, Karin and Adrian Stephen joined the Middle Group, later called the Independent Group.
Karin Stephens was especially interested in presenting psychoanalysis to non-analysts. She gave the first course of lectures on psychoanalysis ever given at Cambridge University, a highly regarded introduction to medical students, which was published in 1933 under the title Psychoanalysis and Medicine. In her remarkable essay on Relations between the superego and the ego she considered that the super-ego as a separate admonishing and punishing function is essentially pathological, while self-awareness is a normal ego-function. Furthermore she stated that the Kleinian internal objects are a fiction imposed by the analyst. (Top of the article)

Alix Strachey née Sargant-Florence (1892-1973)

Alix Strachey was born in Nutley, an artist's colony in New Jersey. Shortly after Alix's birth, her father Harry Smyth-Florence, an American musician, drowned, and her mother Mary Sargant, a British painter, returned with Alix and her elder brother Philip to Britain. From 1911 to 1914 Alix Sargant-Florence studied modern languages at Newnham College, Cambridge. She was known even then for her cutting wit and ironic intelligence, but presumably suffered from anorexia and became melancholic at the age of twenty. Living with her brother in Bloomsbury during World War I, she took part in the life of the Bloomsbury Group around Lytton Strachey and Virginia Woolf. There she met James Strachey (1887-1967), whom she married in 1920.
That year Alix and James Strachey went to Vienna, to undergo analysis with Sigmund Freud, which lastet until 1922. It was during this period that they began to translate Freud's work into English. Alix Strachey became an associate member of the British Psycho-Analytical Society in 1922 and a full member in 1923. On the recommendation of Freud she went to Berlin for further analysis with Karl Abraham in 1924. Her famous correspondence with James Strachey, in which she drew a lively picture of the Berlin psychoanalyst's scene, dates from that time. There she met Melanie Klein, whose ideas strongly impressed her. Due to her suggestion, the BPAS invited Melanie Klein for a series of lectures at the London Institute in 1925. Alix Strachey translated some of her papers into English, e. g. Klein's most important book The Psycho-Analysis of Children.
After Abraham's death Alix Strachey continued her analysis in London with Edward Glover in 1926 and later with Sylvia Payne. In the course of the controversies between Kleinians and Anna Freudians in the BPAS she felt a growing uneasiness with the development of the Kleinian theory, which she described in her paper A note on the use of the word internal. Like her husband she joined the Middle Group, later known as Independent Group.
From the end of the 1940s, Alix and James Strachey worked on the Standard Edition of Sigmund Freud's works, translating the major part of it. In addition Alix Strachey translated, in collaboration with Douglas Bryan, a selection of papers by Karl Abraham, and compiled a complete index of psychoanalytic terms. (Top of the article)

Frances Tustin née Vickers (1913-1994)

The child analyst Frances Tustin was born in Darlington, North East England. She was the only child of two deeply religious parents, who separated in 1926. Frances lived henceforth with her mother and would not see her beloved father again for some fifteen years. From 1932 to 1934 she trained as a teacher at Whitelands College in Putney, London. In 1938 she married John Taylor, a Town Hall official, whom she divorced in 1946. Two years later she married Arnold Tustin (1899-1994), an eminent physicist.
Frances Tustin worked as a teacher for several years, before she became introduced to psychoanalysis while attending courses of Susan Isaacs in 1943. In 1950, after the death of her first child, she began a three-year child psychotherapy training at the London Tavistock Clinic. She entered into analysis with Wilfred Ruprecht Bion, a Kleinian analyst; her analysis lasted (with two interruptions) fourteen years. In 1953 she went to Boston for an internship at the James Putnam Center, one of the first treatment centres for autistic children, which was directed by Beata Rank and Marian Putnam.
Frances Tustin was a member of the British Psychoanalytical Society and the Association of Child Psychotherapists and she taught at the Tavistock Clinic. She expanded Melanie Klein's theories to account for the treatment of autistic children and became an internationally renowned authority in the field of autism. Based on Kleinian and neo-Kleinian principles Tustin had developed a typology of autism in 1972, which is still considered as classical.
In Tustin's view infantile autism is a two-stage-illness: the first stage being an unduly close association with the mother, the father often being absent or excluded. The second stage is when this child becomes prematurely aware of bodily separation from its mother at a time when it cannot yet symbolise the absence. The child feels as if it were experiencing not just loss of the object but also the sensation of being bodily uprooted. Against this traumatic experience of annihilation the child then erects defense mechanisms, which consists of autistic forms and objects and the construction of an autistic shell. (Top of the article)

Clare Winnicott née Britton (1906-1984)

Clare Winnicott was born in Scarborough, the oldest of four children. Her father James Nimmo Britton was a minister in the Baptist church, her mother Elsie Slater was also actively involved in Baptist church activities. After completing high school, Clare Britton attended Selly Oak School, a teacher-training college in Birmingham, from 1929 to 1930. Subsequently she worked for the Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA). In 1937 she began a training in social work by enrolling on a one-year Social Science course at the London School of Economics (LSE). In 1940 she attended the thirteen-month Mental Health Course at the LSE.
During World War II Clare Britton worked with evacuated children in Oxfordshire, who had been separated from their families and who were often traumatized. At this occasion she met her future husband, the psychoanalyst Donald Woods Winnicott (1896-1971), who then worked as psychiatric consultant to hostels for difficult children. From 1947 to 1958 she was lecturer in charge of the Child Care Course, a programme for training social workers at the LSE established by the British Home Office. Donald Winnicott, too, taught on this programme. After the Child Care Course was ended in 1958, Clare Winnicott continued to teach on the Applied Social Studies Course at the LSE until 1964.
In 1951 she married Donald Winnicott, with whom she was very close due to shared interests, temperament and mutual inspiration. Important ideas like the concept of the transitional object were described by Clare Winnicott in her case studies, prior to its theoretical formulation by Donald Winnicott. In 1948, she began an analysis with the Kleinian Clifford Scott and continued with Melanie Klein after Scott had left for Canada in 1954. Although she was impressed by the Kleinian approach, Clare Winnicott criticised Klein's disregard of environmental influences and her insistence on focusing on the negative aspects in the transference.
In 1960 Clare Winnicott became a member of the British Psychoanalytical Society, but did not engage in an analytic practice at that time. From 1964 to 1971, as Director of Child Care Studies at the Home Office, she was in charge of the training of child care workers. After the death of her husband, Clare Winnicott had further analysis with Lois Munro and set up a psychoanalytic practice in London in 1972. In addition she supervised and taught for ten years at the British Association of Psychotherapists, a training centre in psychoanalytic psychotherapy.
In her day Clare Winnicott exerted great influence on British child care and social work with her psychoanalytically inspired approach to social work. General topics of her writings are: understanding the intrapsychic life of children, especially those who have suffered loss and separation; techniques for communicating with children; the role of the social worker as a "transitional participant"; and the counter-transference responses in helping relationships.
Clare Winnicott died of skin cancer in 1984. (Top of the article)